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  3. Changes and developments in a science are determined by numerous causes. Every science grows from its past, and the state reache

Changes and developments in a science are determined by numerous causes. Every science grows from its past, and the state reache

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问题     Changes and developments in a science are determined by numerous causes. Every science grows from its past, and the state reached in a previous generation provides the starting point for the next. But no science is carried on in a vacuum, without reference to or contact with other sciences and the general atmosphere for learning. Scientists and men of learning are also men of their age and country, and they can’t live independent of the culture. Besides its own past, the course of science is also affected by the social context of its contemporary world and the intellectual premises in it. Applications of the science and the expectations that others have of it may be a very important determinant of the direction of its growth and changes.
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答案一个学科的变化和进展(进步)取决于众多因素。每一学科都是过去的产物，上一代人达到的水平是下一代人的起点。但任何一个学科都不是在真空中发展的，都要参照或接触其他学科和总的学术环境。科学家和从事学术研究的人要受自己所处的时代和国家影响，他们不可能脱离文化生活。科学发展的道路(进程)不仅受过去的影响，也受当时世界的社会环境和知识前提的影响。学科的应用和其他人对该学科的期望可能在很大程度上决定(左右)学科发展和变化的方向。
解析     1．science既表示“科学”，也可表示“某一学科”。
    2．第5句中的besides its own past不能翻译为“除了其过去”或“不仅它的过去”，理由是该结构在意义上与social context：和intellectual premises并列，是影响因素之一。
    3．该句中course的实际意义是“路线”或“进程”，不能翻译为“课程”或“过程”。
    4．最后一句的expectations that others have of it may be...可能难懂。applications和expectations是并列的，句中that引导定语从句修饰expectations，而it指代前面的the science，与后面的may be无关。还原的句子是others have expectations of the science。
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