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  3. Architecture Architecture, the practice of building design and its resulting products; customary usage refers only to those

Architecture Architecture, the practice of building design and its resulting products; customary usage refers only to those

admin2013-06-17  80
问题                             Architecture
    Architecture, the practice of building design and its resulting products; customary usage refers only to those designs and structures that are culturally significant. Architecture is to building as literature is to the printed word. One would say today that architecture must satisfy its intended uses, must be technically sound, and must convey aesthetic meaning.  But the best buildings are often so well constructed that they go beyond their original use. They then survive not only as beautiful objects, but as documents of the history of cultures, achievements in architecture that testify to the nature of the society that produced them. These achievements are never wholly the work of individuals. Architecture is a social art.
    Architectural form is inevitably influenced by the technologies applied, but building technology is conservative and knowledge about it is cumulative (积累的). Precast (预制的) concrete, for instance, has not made brick out of date. Although design and construction have become highly sophisticated and are often computer directed, this complex apparatus (器械) rests on preindustrial traditions inherited from thousands of years during which most structures were lived in by the people who erected them. The technical demands on building remain the elemental ones-to exclude enemies, and to avoid discomforts caused by an excess of heat or cold or by the intrusion of rain, wind, or pests. This is no trivial assignment even with the best modem technology.
    The availability of suitable materials fostered the crafts to exploit them and influenced the shapes of buildings. Large areas of the world were once forested, and their inhabitants developed carpentry (木工工作). Although it has become relatively scarce, timber remains an important building material.
    Many kinds of stone lend themselves to building. Stone and marble were chosen for important monuments because they are fireproof and can be expected to endure. Stone is also a sculptural material; stone architecture was often integral with stone sculpture. The use of stone has declined, however, because a number of other materials are more adaptive to industrial use and assembly.
    Some regions lack both timber and stone; their peoples used the earth itself, stuffing certain mixtures into walls or forming them into bricks to be dried in the sun. Later they baked those substances in kilns, producing a range of bricks and files with greater durability. Thus, early cultures used substances occurring in their environment and invented the tools, skills, and technologies to exploit a variety of materials, creating a legacy that continues to inform more industrialized methods.
    Building with stones or bricks is called masonry (石建筑或砖建筑). The elements join together through sheer gravity or the use of bonding materials, first composed of lime and sand. The Romans found natural cement that, combined with inert substances, and produced concrete. They usually faced this with materials that would give a better finish. In the early 19th century truly waterproof cement was developed, the key ingredient of modem concrete.
    In the 19th century also, steel suddenly became abundant; rolling mills turned out shapes that could make structural frames stronger than the traditional wooden frames. Moreover, steel rods could be positioned in wet concrete so as to greatly improve the flexibility of that material, giving impetus early in the 20th century to new forms facilitated by reinforced concrete construction. The subsequent large quantity of aluminum provided cladding (surfacing) material that was lightweight and virtually maintenance free. In recent decades, elaborate systems for vertical transportation, the control of temperature and humidity, forced ventilation, artificial lighting, sanitation, control of fire, and the distribution of electricity and other services have been developed. This has added to the cost of construction and has increased expectations of comfort and convenience.
    In modem architectural region the word program denotes the purposes for which buildings are constructed. Certain broad purposes have always been realized. The noblest works—temples, churches, mosques—celebrate the mysteries of religion and provide assembly places where gods can be propitiated (安抚) or where the multitudes can be instructed in interpretations of belief and can participate in symbolic rituals. Another important purpose has been to provide physical security: Many of the world’s most permanent structures were built with defense in mind. Related to defense is the desire to create buildings that serve as status symbols. Kings and emperors insisted on palaces proclaiming power and wealth, people of privilege have always been the best clients of designers, artists, and artisans, and in their projects the best work of a given period is often represented. Today large corporations, governments, and universities play the role of patron in a less personal way.
    A proliferation (繁殖) of building types reflects the complexity of modem life. More people live in mass housing and go to work in large office buildings; they spend their incomes in large shopping centers, send their children to many different kinds of schools, and when sick go to specialized hospitals and clinics. They linger in airports on the way to distant hotels and resorts. Each class of facility has accumulated experiences that contribute to the expertise needed by its designers.
    The attention of clients, architects, and users is more and more focused on the overall qualities of buildings, Parts of cities are considered mare significant than individual structures. As the total building stock gnaws, conserving buildings and adapting them for changes in use becomes more important.
Clients, architects, and users pay more attention to ______.
选项
答案the overall qualifies of buildings
解析 文中最后一段提到“The attention of clients，architects，and users is more and more focused on the overall qualities of buildings．”
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